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Although it was interesting to read Kohn’s and Chance’s different views on the effects of extrinsic rewards in school, it was also troubling for me to read the ridiculous assumptions Kohn made in regards to Chance’s statements in his first article. As you probably sense by now, I am siding with Chance on his claims about reinforcement and punishment. It is common knowledge that there is not always a guarantee that a behavior will change for the better or be repeated when there is a reward being presented. Chance mentioned a passage from one of Dickinson’s writings, saying, “The evidence, then, shows that extrinsic rewards can either enhance or reduce interest in an activity, depending on how they are used” (p. 119). Thus, I believe that Chance’s main point in the article is the emphasis on how rewards should be given to students, and that the teachers should be persistent with giving them.
Kohn believes that rewards are used to manipulate and control people, in which, any form of extrinsic rewards are bad. If Kohn actually thinks that these positive gestures are manipulative and controlling and that they should not be applied anywhere, then I wonder how miserable it would be having him as a boss, a teacher, or even a dad. The reality is that it would be impossible to rid any form of extrinsic rewards in school or any other setting. There will always be forms of reinforcement in our society-certificates, degrees, bonuses, promotions, handshakes, verbal praise, etc. However, many people, like Kohn, believe that extrinsic rewards damage intrinsic motivation.
Sometimes, extrinsic motivation should be used in order for there to be effective learning in the classroom. If a child is not intrinsically motivated to read, then why should a teacher accept that instead of creating methods that would extrinsically make reading attractive to the student? We are all not always intrinsically motivated to do certain tasks, yet we find extrinsic motivation to continue and accomplish them. Those extrinsic motivators will lead to us developing a habit to do those tasks in which we are not intrinsically motivated to do. According to William James, “And since this, . . ., it follows first of all that the teacher’s prime concern should be to ingrain into the pupil that assortment of habits that shall be most useful to him throughout life” (James, 1899/2001, p. 34). I believe that teachers rewarding students for their behavioral and academic accomplishments is a way for them to teach them good habits. Therefore, the student will not only make it a habit to read each night, but it is a good possibility that the child will acquire new knowledge, and he or she will develop an intrinsic like for it.
Also, intrinsic motivation for a particular task does not always live forever. As a little girl, I practiced a martial art called ShorinRyu Karate Dojo. I was intrinsically motivated for many years. I taught classes, won several sparring matches, got constantly recommended by my sensei to spar in Korea for competitions, and got belt promotions. Yet, after awhile I got bored and decided to no longer practice martial arts because I wanted to be involved with other activities. Both the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations did not keep me interested in martial arts.
Considering the fact that all individuals are affected differently by various extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation, it is safe to take a pragmatic approach, if it works for an individual in that particular situation is what matters. For anyone to generalize and say what works best for students is nonsensical. We do not know the general effects of extrinsic rewards. The fact that what works best for one student may not for another student. We should just consider the individual, and as Chance said, how extrinsic rewards should be presented to students.

James, W. (1899/2001). Talks to teachers on psychology and to students on some of life's ideals. Mineola, NY: Dover

Imitation and Mimicry

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             Some people believe that knowledge is an entity that is fixed and cannot be expanded, whereas others believe that it is incremental, it can be increased with effort (Pink, 2009).  According to Skinner, acquiring new knowledge is something that takes a process, in which can lead to an increase in students’ cognitive development.  Skinner believed that students learn by strategic instructions from their teachers.  Thus, many teachers should be taught the proper methods of effectively teaching their students.  Skinner said, “Teachers must learn how to teach, and they must be taught by schools of education” (p. 950).

Skinner believed that teachers should act as the main functioning tool for presenting new information to their students.  As a behaviorist, he viewed that once the teacher is effective with how he or she teaches, the students will respond accordingly.  He explained, “A student is “taught” in a sense that he is induced to engage in new forms of behavior and in specific forms upon specific occasions” (Skinner, 1958, p. 970).   For instance, when there are grammatical and contextual errors on the response papers we do for class, adequate feedback and guidance from the teacher helps to improve those errors in the future.  Therefore, teaching is about shaping the behavior of students to improve their process of learning.

Furthermore, Skinner acknowledged that even the most skillful teacher who has received the proper training for teaching his or her class is not able to teach all students in the class to be able to fully grasp on the material. Thus, there are many students that are taught simultaneously, and they all have different levels of processing information.  Even William James mentioned in one of his chapters in Talks to Teachers that it is impossible for teachers to gain the interest of every student (James, 1899/2001).  Also, it is implausible for all students to learn effectively through a teacher’s skillful instruction.

After reading Skinner’s article, William James’ belief on habit and free will constantly popped in my mind.  William James did not think of free will as being something people have much of, and B.F. Skinner did not believe that it existed.  William James thought that teachers should teach their students good habits in order for them to gain knowledge.  While Skinner believed that students and teachers should be taught the proper behaviors to effectively functioning tools in their positions.  Thus, a teacher’s behavior is shaped by being taught how to teach and a student’s behavior is being shaped by being taught how to learn.  The question is, how does molding the behavior of students and teachers not interfere with their creativity?  

References

James, W. (1899/2001). Talks to teachers on psychology and to students on some of life's ideals.

            Mineola, NY: Dover. ISBN: 0486-41964-9

Pink, D. H. (2009). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. New York, NY:

            Riverhead.

Skinner, B.F. (1958).  Teaching machine.  Science, 128, 969-977

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            I believe that having some free will establishes humans as rational beings in the society.  Without free will, there would not be rational deliberation in our minds.  People have to have the control of their own minds in order to make decisions for themselves to better fit their circumstance.  Therefore, the will we have is the decisions we make for ourselves that are produced through our thoughts and feelings.  Yet, even those streams of consciousness are controlling our decisions.  The decisions or reasoning we make are based on what works best for us at that particular moment.  Thus, ultimately, a decision is made and an inaction or action is executed depending upon how well the possible outcome fits in complex stream of consciousness.  However, sometimes we chose to make certain decisions that are not in our best interest.  William James says, “Voluntary action, then, is at all times a resultant of the compounding of our impulsion with our inhibitions” (p. 87).  This concept reminds me of Sigmund Freud’s theory on id, ego, and superego (voluntary action being the ego, impulsion being the id, and inhibitions being the superego).             

            Although our inhibitions can a lot of times be the reasoning force to our decision making, it can also be a hindrance towards certain opportunities because of certain failures in life.  James explains, “So long as the inhibiting sense of impossibility remains in the child’s mind, he will continue unable to get beyond the obstacle” (p. 89).  Therefore, according to James, it is teachers’ duty to build character in their students by helping them find the right ideas to better fit their talents and needs (James, 1899/2001).  Teachers should be warm, encouraging, and understanding of their students so that the students will not have any hang-ups about exceeding to their highest potential without a lot of inhibition.

            I now truly believe in the power of thoughts.  We all get to think how we want to think about every aspect of life and those around us.  Since we have this freedom of thoughts and feelings, it leaves ample amount of room for particular actions we make towards them.  For instance, if a teacher has negative perceptions about girls mathematical performance, that teach will most likely unconsciously act on his or her beliefs through teaching math to female students.    

            We are only free to act on our own self interests and well-being.  Whatever is attracting our stream of consciousness, we have the will to focus and act upon it.  However, since everything that attracts us is not always good for us, inhibition is there to be the mediator.  The question is, how does inhibition relate to morality?

IAT Test

The two Implicit Associations Tests I took were Republican versus Democratic and an energy drink named Force versus "Other".  Both results I got from each test were results my I did not expect to favor more than the other.  In the beginning, after viewing the items the test gave me, my conscious state, of course, assumed what the outcome will reflect my own initial views and feelings about them.  However, the outcome of my IAT results disproved my claim.  After receiving my results, I got a bit frustrated because I felt that the test discredited who I know I am.  Thus, after awhile, it became clear to me as to why the test showed that I favored certain items that I would not imagine favoring in reality.  I thought about the things I am more exposed to in my environment now and over the years.  The items that the test proved I unconsciously favored are the ones that are more culturally accepted in our society.

 According to William James, “But our thinking and feeling processes are also largely subject to the laws of habit, and one result of this is a phenomenon which you all know under the name of the association of ideas” (p. 40).  We all develop certain ideas and feelings that originated from our culture and experiences.  It is only natural for us to make our own perceived ideas through associations because it is what is most exposed to us and experience, in which we are opt to respond accordingly as a habit.  Sometimes, the associations we have are not always generally right.  However, we cannot help the fact that those associations were learned.  They are needed for us to be able to interpret the world to fit our way of life.  James describes, “Moreover, you fully realize . . . how important in life . . . is this sense of readiness for emergencies which a man gains through early familiarity and acquaintance with the world of material things” (p. 72). 

Reference
 James, W. (1899/2001). Talks to teachers on psychology and to students on some of life's ideals. Mineola, NY: Dover. ISBN: 0486-41964-9

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            In the second chapter of Talks to Teachers, William James expresses that everyone has the stream of consciousness, which stems from our experiences and knowledge.  He describes that the stream of consciousness involves the flow of sensations and thoughts that constantly emerge in our consciousness at all times.  According to James, “They contain sensations of past experiences and thoughts of distant things, feelings of satisfaction and dissatisfaction, desires and aversions, and other emotional conditions, together with determinations of the will, . . . ” (p. 8).  We tend to have those distant thoughts and sensations while both awake and in our sleep. 

 I believe that attention is the main key in explaining the focus and margin conscious fields.  It is no doubt that everyone’s mind wanders, and sometimes it is difficult to have full control over our own thoughts and feelings.  Furthermore, when at times, there are teachers who have no control over their students’ stream of consciousness, based on how they present their lesson to their students.  Therefore, when students have their full attention on the sensation or thought that occupies their mind, and the lesson that the teacher presents is placed in their marginal consciousness field, may lead to an impact in their academic development.   For example, if a teacher is giving a lecture on a topic about how lions catch their prey for food, a student may have wandering thoughts simply because he or she has no interest in the topic or the subject has the individual thinking about something that is unrelated to the topic (i.e., a television program about cooking).  In turn, the distant thoughts that are in a student’s head can reflect on how well he or she memorizes information.

Although it is impossible to fully eliminate wandering thoughts and feelings, there are ways teachers could minimize the frequency of the distant thoughts and sensations of their students.  One way that James later talks about in his book is the importance for teachers to create their instructions interestingly enough for the students to focus better on the topic, which will most likely lead to their students’ academic success.  However, although the stream of consciousness can be perceived as something being negative and a setback, it could also be used for people’s advantage.   The positive aspect of having a stream of consciousness is the fact that it lets us know that our mind is functioning and is in constant work.  Plus, if something is boring a person, having distant thoughts can occupy the mind and keep the individual alert.

Usually, when students have an over powering stream of consciousness, where they have trouble focusing, such as a lecture in school; the typical diagnosis for this deficit is attention deficit disorder, which is treated mainly with medication.  I doubt that James would want anyone to take medication; I believe that James would have taken a different approach in improving people’s attention.  He would have given individuals certain strategies or self-help tactics, such as putting emphasis on making lessons relevant and interesting to the pupils, implementing longer recess, and more classroom interactions.

 I can honestly admit that even when something interests me, the undivided attention it has only lasts a certain amount of time, then something else starts occupying my mind.  After my mind has been occupied with something else, my thoughts and feelings will go back to its original position.  I almost think it is normal for attention to make leaps and jumps at given times because it is almost impossible to be attentive to something the whole time, given that it lasts at least twenty minutes.    

William James says, “There is a stream, a succession of states, or waves, or fields (whatever you please to call them), of knowledge, of feeling of desire, of deliberation, etc., that constantly pass and repass, and that constitute our inner life” (p. 7).  Obviously, if the stream of consciousness is a natural, automatic, and endless phenomenon that is greatly needed for our inner well-being, we should not look at it as being a terrible element in our lives.  We should instead learn how to balance it in our daily lives.  What are ways of controlling our streams of consciousness from getting in the way of certain important tasks?

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In William James’ chapter on “The Acquisition of Ideas,” I soon realized the connection with between James’ view on acquiring and applying knowledge and Jean Piaget’s theories on cognitive development.  Piaget believed that acquired knowledge comes from our experiences, and the actions we do in order to adapt to our environment.  Also, as a constructivist, Piaget believed that children are their own builders of intelligence. 

According to James, “Constructiveness is the instinct most active; . . ., the child not only trains the muscles to co-ordinate action, but accumulates a store of physical conceptions which are the basis of his knowledge of the material world through life” (p. 72).

William James believed that students should be exposed to various forms of learning, and not just through books and lectures in school.  He emphasizes the importance of hands-on learning for the growth of knowledge.  Thus, through having broadening knowledge, students will be able to adapt into their environment, and keep up with society and its changes.  According to Piaget’s equilibrium concept, he also believed that the knowledge we acquire should serve as the advancement in the world around us; and for which there should be a balance between the mind and the environment. 

            Furthermore, Piaget’s schema concepts (assimilation and accommodation) are similar to James’ theory on the acquisition of ideas.  Although James does not directly give examples of each of the schema, it interested me that he used the actual name of one of them.  James says, “There is a native tendency to assimilate certain kinds of conception at one age, and other kinds of conception at a later age” (p. 72).  Similarly, Piaget thought that everyone has native knowledge, in which we expand by adding or changing new information into our existing knowledge we tend to get from our experiences.  According to Piaget’s accommodation concept, we often change our behavior to accommodate new changes in our environment.  

James explains, “As I used at our first meeting, of the child snatching the toy and getting slapped, the vestiges left by the first experience answered to so many ideas which he acquired thereby, -ideas that remained with him associated in a certain order, and from the last one which the child eventually proceeded to act” (p. 71). 

This passage is similar to Piaget’s accommodation theory because James describes how a child learned to changed his behavior to better fit the situation in his favor next time he plays and interact with his peers.               

In regards to applying for a job, career, or graduate school, one of the main emphases is on experience.  After graduating from college with a bachelor degree, I soon realized that the hard way.  Every job I applied for not only wanted a piece of paper indicating book knowledge, but they also wanted proof that I could actually do the work and not just have read about it or attended lectures on it.  My father, who is an electrician for a cooperation with only a high school diploma, has expressed to me that several of the young guys he works with, have a degree, yet have trouble understanding and accomplishing their work.

Therefore, the process of obtaining an education is not only established through having a formal education, however, our experiences significantly contribute to our knowledge.  As my great grandmother would always say, “It is better to have commonsense than book-sense.”  Over the past several years, I finally understood what she meant.  Knowledge is not always about how much information someone is gaining from a book, but it is mainly the experiences that the knowledge derived from and what a person does with the knowledge he or she has is true intelligence.  The question is, if experience is significant in proving our intelligence in the society, why is there so much emphasis on standardized tests in our educational system?

                                               
                                                        References

 Cherry, K. (2011). Background and key concepts of Piaget's Theory.  Retrieved from http://psychology.about.com/od/piagetstheory/a/keyconcepts.htm